What is Substance in Philosophy?

Substance is a fundamental concept in philosophy, especially in the philosophy of mind and metaphysics. It refers to the essence or fundamental nature of something, that which constitutes its existence and identity. Substance is considered as the ontological basis of all things, being the underlying reality that supports the properties and attributes of an object or entity.

Aristotle and the Theory of Substance

One of the most influential philosophers in the discussion about substance was Aristotle. For him, substance was the fundamental principle of all things, that which gives rise to existence and change. Aristotle distinguished two forms of substance: the primary substance, which is the concrete and particular individual, and the secondary substance, which is the universal and abstract essence. The primary substance is that which exists by itself, while the secondary substance is that which exists in something else.

Descartes and Substance as Res Cogitans and Res Extensa

René Descartes also contributed to the discussion about substance, presenting the idea that there are two fundamental substances: res cogitans (thinking substance) and res extenso (extended substance). For Descartes, res cogitans is the substance that has thought, consciousness and mind, while res extenso is the substance that has spatial extension and is responsible for physical matter. These two substances are independent and distinct, but they interact with each other in humans.

Spinoza and Substance as God

Baruch Spinoza presented a different view of substance, considering it as God. For Spinoza, God is the only existing substance, being the cause of all things. He argued that everything that exists is a manifestation or mode of this divine substance, and that reality is a single, infinite substance. This monistic view of substance was one of Spinoza's main contributions to philosophy.

Hume and the Critique of Substance

David Hume was a philosopher who criticized the notion of substance. He argued that we cannot have direct knowledge of the substance, as we can only perceive its attributes and qualities. Hume questioned the idea that there is an underlying substance that sustains the properties of an object, stating that everything we perceive are just impressions and ideas. For Hume, substance is a fiction of the human mind.

Kant and Substance as a Category of Understanding

Immanuel Kant approached substance as one of the categories of human understanding. For Kant, substance is one of the ways in which the mind organizes and structures sensitive experience. He argued that substance is a necessary category for our understanding of the world, but that we cannot know substance in itself, only its phenomenal manifestations. Substance, for Kant, is an a priori condition of our experience.

Substance in Contemporary Philosophy

The discussion about substance in contemporary philosophy continues, with different approaches and perspectives. Some philosophers defend the existence of a fundamental substance that sustains reality, while others question the notion of substance and propose more complex approaches, such as field theory or procedural ontology. Substance continues to be a central theme in philosophy, generating debates and reflections on the nature of reality.

Substance and Identity

One of the important aspects of substance is its relationship with identity. The substance is what gives identity to an object or entity, being its fundamental essence. Through substance, we can distinguish one object from another and recognize them as the same over time. The identity of an object is linked to its substance, to what makes it what it is.

Substance and Causality

The substance is also related to causality, being considered as the cause or origin of the properties and attributes of an object. The substance is what determines the characteristics of an object and the causal relationships it establishes with other objects. Causality is linked to the substance, as it is through it that events and phenomena occur.

Substance and Change

Substance also plays an important role in understanding change. Through substance, we can understand how an object can undergo transformations and acquire new properties. The substance is that which remains constant throughout change, being the ontological basis that supports the continuity and transformation of an object. Change is related to the substance, as it is through it that transformation processes occur.

Substance and Dualism

The discussion about substance is also related to dualism, which is the idea that there are two fundamental substances: one material and one immaterial. Dualism considers that the mind and body are distinct substances, with different natures. This dualistic view of substance raises questions about the relationship between the mind and the body, and how these two substances interact with each other.

Substance and Reductionism

On the other hand, reductionism proposes that substance can be reduced to more fundamental elements, such as subatomic particles or physical processes. Reductionism seeks to explain reality in terms of its constituent parts, denying the existence of a fundamental substance beyond these parts. This reductionist approach to substance challenges the traditional view and raises questions about the nature of reality.

Substance and Emergency

An alternative approach to substance is emergence theory, which proposes that new properties and entities can arise from the interaction of simpler elements. Emergence challenges the idea of ​​a fundamental substance and suggests that reality is characterized by levels of complexity and organization. This emergentist view of substance questions traditional approaches and offers a more dynamic and evolutionary perspective.

Conclusion

In short, substance is a central concept in philosophy, being fundamental to understanding the nature of reality. Different philosophers have presented approaches and perspectives on substance, from Aristotle to contemporary philosophers. Substance is related to identity, causality, change, dualism, reductionism and emergence. The discussion about the substance continues to generate debates and reflections, contributing to the advancement of philosophical knowledge.